Theses and Dissertations (Veterinary Physiology/Pharmacology)

Evaluation of the Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Oxidant Potentials of Methanolic Extract of Helianthus Annuus L. Leaves in Alloxan-Induced Hyperglycemic Rats

2017-06-11T23:56:50Z

Evaluation of the Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Oxidant Potentials of Methanolic Extract of Helianthus Annuus L. Leaves in Alloxan-Induced Hyperglycemic Rats Onoja, Samuel Okwudili This study evaluated the anti-diabetic and anti-oxidant potential of methanolic extract of Helianthus annuus L. leaves in alloxan induced hyperglycemic rats. Fresh leaves of the plant were collected from their local habitat in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka environment. The extract was prepared by cold maceration using 80 % methanol at environmental temperature with intermittent sharing for 48 h to obtain a yield of 10.04 % w/w dry Helianthus annuus extract (HAE). The extract was tolerated by the rats, which showed no overt signs of toxicity at the dose range 300 – 3600 mg/kg) tested. Even the highest does of 3600 mg/kg did not cause mortality in the rats. The crude extract produced dose- and time-dependent reduction in fasting blood sugar (FBS) level. HAE (600 mg/kg) at 6 hour post treatment, significantly (p < 0.05) decreased FBS when compared with DW treated group. However this was not significant (p > 0.05) when compared with GLB-treated group. The normoglycemic OGTT showed no significant (p > 0.05) difference in FBS level between all the treated groups. At 2 hour post glucose load, there was no significant (p > 0.05) difference compared with the 0 hour FBS level. In hyperglycaemic OGTT, HAE (600 mg/kg) at 2 hour was significantly (p < 0.05) lower when compared with the control. However, this was not significant (p > 0.05) when compared with GLB (2 mg/kg) treated group. The separation of the extract yielded thirteen (13) fractions. Bioactivity screening of the fractions at 60 mg/kg showed various degrees of reduction in FBS in time-dependent manner. The HAE, fractions 8-10 and 13 caused 66.74, 61.36, 70.63 and 78.03% reductions in FBS, respectively. Phytochemical spot tests of the HAE showed the presence of saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, glycosides, tannins and carbohydrates while fractions 8 and 10 contain mainly glycosides and sterols and fraction 13 contains mainly tannins. In vitro anti-oxidant tests at 400 µg/ml showed that HAE, fractions 8-10 and 13 gave 89.00, 30.42, 88.03 and 92.72 % anti-oxidant activity, respectively using DPPH model and 3.69, 0.95, 0.67 and 0.28 anti-oxidant potential, respectively in FRAP model. Ascorbic acid used as control has antioxidant potential of 2.00 using FRAP model. The study validates the use of the preparations from H. annuus leaves in folklore diabetic therapy.

The Biochemical Effects of Cussonia Arborea Root Bark Extract in Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats

2017-06-11T23:56:49Z

The Biochemical Effects of Cussonia Arborea Root Bark Extract in Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rats Aba, Patrick Emeka Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by chronic hyperglycemic condition resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both. It is a growing public health concern worldwide affecting humans and animals. Synthetic drugs available for the treatment of the ailment have serious side effects, complicated mode of intake and are costly. Literature search revealed that Cussonia arborea is used folklorically in the management of Diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study is to isolate, characterize and elucidate the active principle responsible for its hypoglycaemic activity using alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The root bark of C. arborea (2 kg) was extracted with 80% methanol by cold maceration method. Acute toxicity study was done in 35 rats assigned into 7 groups of 5 rats per group. Groups 1, 2,3,4,5 and 6 rats were orally administered with graded doses (500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 mg/kg bw) of the extract respectively. The rats in group 7 received 10 ml/kg distilled water (DW) to serve as negative control group. They were observed closely for 48 hours for signs of toxicity. Assessment of hypoglycemic activities of the extract was done using oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), acute and chronic antidiabetic studies. In OGTT, 30 rats were randomly assigned into 5 groups of six rats per group. Groups 1, 2 and 3 rats received 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg bw of the extract respectively while groups 4 and 5 rats received 2 mg/kg bw glibenclamide and 10 ml/kg DW respectively after 18 h fasting and prior to 2000 mg/kg of glucose load. The fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels of the rats were determined after 30, 60, 120 and 180 min post glucose challenge. Diabetes was induced by single intraperitoneal administration of alloxan monohydrate at the dose of 160 mg/kg bw. Rats with FBG levels above 126 mg/dl (7 mMol/L) were considered diabetic. Thirty male albino Wistar rats assigned into 6 groups of 5 rats per group were used for acute antidiabetic studies. Groups 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were diabetic rats treated with 250, 500 1000 mg/kg bw of the extract, 2 mg/kg bw glibenclamide and 10 ml/kg DW respectively while group 6 rats were non diabetic but administered with 10 ml/kg DW. The FBG levels of the rats were determined 1 h, 3 h, 6 h and 24 h post treatment. Seventy two (72) male albino wistar rats weighing between 100 and 105 g were assigned into six groups of 12 rats per group for chronic antidiabetic studies. Groups 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 rats were made diabetic as described earlier and treated with 62.5, 125, 250 mg/kg bw of the extracts, 2 mg/kg bw glibenclamide and 10 ml/kg DW respectively while the non diabetic group 6 rats received 10 ml/kg DW and served as normal control rats. The treatment was daily through the oral route for 84 days. The biochemical (aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), total cholesterol, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein (HDL), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), total protein, albumin, globulin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, total bilirubin, conjugated bilirubin, unconjugated bilirubin, malondiadehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and reduced glutathione) and haematological (red blood cell (RBC), haemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), white blood cell (WBC), differential leucocytes (lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils and monocytes), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)) parameters were assayed on days 28, 56 and 84 post treatment while the FBG values and weight changes were determined every two weeks. The glycosylated haemoglobin values were measured on days 42, 56 and 84 post treatment. Three rats per group were humanly sacrificed on days 28, 56 and 84 for the assessment of the histomorphology of various organs (pancreas, kidney, liver and heart). In vitro antioxidant assay was carried out using ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) photometric assay models. Chromatographic separation of the plant extract was done using column and thin layer chromatographic techniques. The 1H proton and 13carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) were used for structural elucidation of the active hypoglycaemic principle. No sign of toxicity was observed after acute toxicity test. The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, tannins and terpenes. The mean FBG level of the rats treated with 250 mg/kg bw of the extract in acute anti-diabetic study, at 3 h post extract administration was significantly (p<0.05) lower than the FBG before administration of the extract. In the chronic anti-diabetic study, the mean FBG level of rats treated with 125 mg/kg bw of the extract reduced significantly (p<0.05), the post induction FBG from 315.33± 10.08 mg/dl to 93.00 ±8.50 mg/dl, 14 days post administration and ameliorated the glycosylation of haemoglobin compared to the negative control group. Administration of 250 mg/kg bw of the extract in glucose challenged rats reduced the post challenge glucose level from 147.66 ±1.85 mg/dl to 83.00 ±3.5 mg/dl, 180 min post treatment. Assessment of the biochemical and haematological parameters in chronically-treated diabetic rats showed that the administration of 125 mg/kg bw of the extract, significantly (p<0.05) reduced the activities of AST, ALT and the levels of total cholesterol, triglyceride, VLDL, LDL BUN, creatinine, total bilirubin, malondialdehyde but significantly (p<0.05) increased the activities of SOD, catalase and the levels of HDL, total protein, conjugated bilirubin, reduced glutathione , RBC, Hb and PCV when compared to the diabetic untreated group (negative control). The extract yielded seven fractions. The FBG of the rats treated with 12.5 mg/kg bw of fraction 2 was significantly (p<0.05) lower compared to the negative control group. Subfraction 1 (2 mg/kg) of fraction 2 significantly (p<0.05) reduced the FBG levels from 310.00±5.77 mg/dl to 74.00±0.57 mg/dl. Rats treated with 125 mg/kg bw of the extract showed milder histopathologic lesions in various tissues compared with negative control. The DPPH in vitro antioxidant assay showed a concentration dependent activities with 400 µg/ml of the extract and ascorbic acid showing 74% and 92% activities respectively. The FRAP values of the extract and ascorbic acid at 400µg/ml were 1.60 and 2µm respectively. The NMR spectroscopy revealed a pentacyclic triterpenoid, {(3β)-3-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid} as the active compound. The study showed that the root bark extract of C. arborea did not only possess antihyperglycaemic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant and antianemic properties but also reduced haemoglobin glycosylation and ameliorated the severe degenerative lesions in the pancreas, kidney, liver and cardiac myocytes occasioned by Diabetes mellitus.

Evaluation of Drug Combinations in Total Intravenous Anaesthesia in West African Dwarf Goat

2017-06-11T23:51:24Z

Evaluation of Drug Combinations in Total Intravenous Anaesthesia in West African Dwarf Goat Ukwueze, Celestine Okwudili. (Dvm). The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery The physiological, biochemical and anaesthetic effects of the drug combinations were studies in West African Dwarf goat. In protocol I, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the HR of GP I goats at 10 mins post-induction (PI), which significantly (p < 0.05) decreased from 30 min PI. The HR significantly decreased (p < 0.05) at 20 min in GP IV goats, and at 10 min GP II goats, and returned to the pre-anaesthetic value at 40 min PI. However, HR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 50 mins PI in GP A and B and between 40-80 min PI in GP D. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 10 and 20 mins PI in GPs A and B respectively, till 40 min PI and at 30 mins PI in GP D. These changes normalized at 40 min PI when compared to the pre-anaesthetic values in protocol I. The RR decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 80 mins, 10 - 50 mins, 30 - 80 mins PI in GPs A, B, and D respectively, but significantly increased at 20 min PI in GP C. The RT of the goats dropped significantly (p < 0.05) between 10 - 40 mins PI in GP I and GP II. However, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RT between 20 - 30 mins and 10 - 30 mins PI in GPs A, and B respectively. The induction was good and smooth in GPs II, IV, B and D, slightly excitment in GPs I, III, A and C. The quality of recovery was fair in GPs I and A, good in GPs II and III, B and C, good and rapid in GP IV and D. Side effects such as salivation, coughing, ataxia, apnoe, snoring and phonation were observed in both protocols. There was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in PCV at 30 min PI in GPs I, III, IV and D. The mean HB decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs III, IV and A, and at 1440 min PR in GP II, while the values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GP A. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease in RBC was recorded in GP II at 30 min PI, and between 120 -1440 min PR. The mean pre-anaesthetic blood glucose levels (BGL) were 75.00 ± 1.29, 68.50 ± 2.84, 48.50 ± 3.23, and 53.50 ± 4.69 mg/dl for GPs I, II, III and IV, respectively. These values significantly (p < 0.05) increased at 30 mins PI in all the GPs and returned to pre-anaesthetic value at 120 min post-recovery (PR) in GPs I and IV, decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 120 -1440 min PR in GP II. The BGL values increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 30 min PI in GPs A, B C and D. It remained consistent at 120 min PR in GPs B, C and D and returned to base line value in all these GPs at1440 min PR. The cortisol level significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at 30 min PI in GP II but increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 120 min PR in GPs I, II, III and IV compared to pre-anaesthetic values. There was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the cortisol level at 30 min PI in GP B only and increased significantly (p < 0.05) at 102 min PR in GPs A, C, and D, and at 1440 min in GP B. It was concluded that the anaesthetic drug combinations resulted in the smooth and uneventful induction with mild cardiopulmonary depressions and rapid recovery. Their effects on haematological values as well as biochemical values were also mild. The xylazine + ketamine + propofol, xylazine + ketamine and xylazine + propofol combinations produced sufficient surgical anaesthetic durations both in single injection and maintenance procedures and may be used successfully in both short and long surgical procedure without an incident of untoward side effects. The ketamine + propofol combination produced greater haemodynamic stability than other combinations but with shortest duration of surgical anaesthesia. Therefore, the use of the drug combinations is promising especially in good quality anesthesia, rapid onset and rapid recovery